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mon to all of Christian europe did not remain the sole possession of
Icelandic clerics but was disseminated to other social groups, especially to
the lay chieftain class.6
one of the reasons for this is that many of the clerics belonged to this
latter class. Indeed, the Icelandic Church of the 11th and 12th centuries has
been called a “goða kirkja” by scholars wishing to highlight the fact that the
most powerful members of the clergy belonged to families of lay chieftains
(sing. goði, plur. goðar).7 Many clerics continued to exercise their secular
powers despite their ordination until the late 12th century when this was
forbidden by the archbishop of Trondheim, whose pro vince encompassed
Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, the Orkneys, the Hebrides and the Isle
of Man. During the first two centuries of Christianity in Iceland, one
could say that the Church and the lay chieftains formed a joint dominant
class which did not begin to separate until the late 12th century or even the
middle of the 13th century. The consequence was an unwillingness on the
part of the Icelandic Church to implement some of the policies of Rome,
especially if they went against the interests of the lay chieftains. Even
though the lay chieftains showed, in their culture, an interest for pre-
Christian times and the pagan religion, this does not mean that they did
not also use what they needed from clerical culture.
Another reason is that the lay chieftains were themselves in need of
access to at least some aspects of the learning of the Church. one example
is the practice of law. Though Icelandic law from the Free State period (i.e.
before 1262) has roots in an important and probably ancient Germanic
legal tradition, it also shows evidence of learning from continental Europe.
Moreover, during both the 12th and 13th centuries, it is known to have
incorporated important changes stemming directly from changes in canon
law.8 These changes were implemented by lay chieftains since they had
control over the legislative assembly or Alþingi.
A fine example of a lay chieftain who manifestly acquired knowledge
6 See Margaret Clunies Ross’s contribution to this volume.
7 See Gunnar karlsson, Goðamenning, 411–428.
8 See Sveinbjörn Rafnsson, „Grágás og Digesta Iustiniani,“ Sjötíu ritgerðir helgaðar Jakobi
Benediktssyni, 2 vols. (Reykjavík: Stofnun Árna Magnússonar, 1977), 720–732, torfi H.
tulinius, „Guðs lög í ævi og verkum Snorra Sturlusonar,“ Ný Saga. Tímarit Sögufélags 8
(1996): 31–40, and Sigurður Líndal, „um þekkingu íslendinga á rómverskum og kanónísk­
um rétti frá 12. öld til miðrar 16. aldar,“ Úlfljótur 50:1 (1997): 247–273.
tHe SeLf AS otHeR