Jökull


Jökull - 01.01.2017, Page 18

Jökull - 01.01.2017, Page 18
Microearthquakes on the eastern flank of Katla volcano, S-Iceland sian (Figure 9). We note that the differential measure- ments applied in relative location are generally more precise than absolute phase picks and inherently min- imize the potential effects of velocity structure bias. Trade-off between focal depth, origin time and veloc- ity may also affect the absolute locations of Jeddi et al. (2016), but this is difficult to evaluate. We estimated the relative error based on the waveform correlation coefficient. However, the error of differential mea- surements based on correlation also depends on the characteristics of the waveform at each station (Sgat- toni et al., 2016b). We have not taken this dependence into account as it would require an extensive synthetic study. Furthermore, we have assumed a laterally uni- form velocity model in our relative locations. This may cause bias that can either be avoided by apply- ing a robust 3-D velocity model or by solving for the wave geometry at each station together with relative location as Sgattoni et al. (2016b) did. Figure 9. Histogram of residuals derived by relative location after the final inversion (132 events of fam- ily 1). – Súlurit sem sýnir tímafrávik eftir afstæðar staðsetningar allra skjálfta í flokki 1. With limited information about the focal mech- anisms of the eastern events we can only speculate about their physical cause. We can, however, exclude glacial processes. Icequakes are observed in glacial streams worldwide (e.g., Roux et al., 2008; O’Neel and Pfeffer, 2007), also in the temperate glaciers of Iceland, e.g. in Skeiðarárjökull (Roberts, 2005; Magnússon et al., 2005). However, these occur pre- dominantly in association with floods or rain, while the two known biggest eastern-event swarms occurred in November and December. More importantly, we can robustly distinguish the events’ focal depths from the surface. We have established that the events are small (ML ≈ 0), of VT character and very clustered lat- erally. They are also clustered in depth and their aver- age depth is about 3.5 km. The magnitude range and VT character suggest a brittle fault dimension of tens of meters (assuming constant stress drop scaling (e.g., Abercrombie, 1995)), i.e. smaller than the dimensions of the clusters. The absolute depth is not robustly de- termined. We can speculate about tectonic, volcanic or hydrothermal origin. The events isolation in space clearly argues against the underlying cause being a distributed stress field in the upper crust. Therefore, a simple tectonic explanation is unlikely. Besides, the events occur in an area outside the rift, which is not expanding on a short time scale in this area (LaFemina et al., 2005). The clustering of the events suggests a local force field. This might associate with a localized pressure or buoyancy source, i.e., fluids. The fluid might be magma, hydrothermal brine or gas. How- ever, the VT character of the events suggests brittle failure while volcanic sources involving fluids are of- ten associated with long-period (LP) events (Chouet, 1996). The magma candidate leads us to speculate about an ascending cryptodome, such as Soosalu et al. (2006) suggested as an explanation of events beneath Goðaland, on the western flank of Katla. Felsic ex- trusives are found on the eastern flank near Sandfells- jökull. However, the Goðaland events are LP events, but swarms of VT and hybrid events have been regis- tered elsewhere in association with dome rising, e.g., at Montserrat (Miller et al., 1998). Hydrothermal fluid may become pressurized due to a local heat source or due to changes in permeabil- ity that circulates fluids by a heat source. A pressure increase would lower the effective normal stress on fractures and faults, thereby decreasing their stabil- ity. It may also induce fracture dilation or even cause tensional fracturing, affecting permeability and effec- JÖKULL No. 67, 2017 13

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