Gripla - 01.01.1979, Blaðsíða 195

OLD NORSE COURT POETRY
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through the greater portion of the poems; for that reason the dead
and the glorious are said to live in the songs of the bards. The
ideal hero while alive ‘lived’ in the battle ground, and after death
passed into the verses of the singers.
Norse chiefs were apparently no exceptions to this, and this could
explain in part their interest in panegyric, and at the same time their
fear of satire.7 There may, of course, have been additional causes for
the latter (cf. Almqvist 1965).
(c) The heroism of ancient warriors is extolled, not only in their
honour but also as an exhortation.8 This is also known elsewhere, see
Kailasapathy (1968:251):
It appears from the poems that the cherished memories of ances-
tors were restraints on the conduct of heroes.
And furthermore (1968:82):
By singing songs that recalled memories of the valiant feats of
their forefathers, the soldiers were urged to emulate them.
(d) Poets occasionally told a king something others did not dare to
say openly.9 If this was one of the poets’ tasks, it is somewhat remi-
niscent of the position of ombudsman in present day Scandinavia.
A similar phenomenon in Africa is discussed by Finnegan (1976:
142):
. . . praises could contain criticism as well as eulogy, a pressure to
conform to expectations as well as praise for actual behaviour. In
7 In the laws of the Icelandic commonwealth, valid until 1271, the proper
subjects of poems are determined (Grágás II 1852:183-185), stating at the outset
that one is neither to compose a poem of abuse nor of praise. Considering the
quantity of poems handed down this may seem strange. In dealing with poetry
among the Hausa, Finnegan (1976:94-95) points out that poets who make a
living out of praise poetry outside the courts may turn praise into abuse if an
adequate remuneration is not forthcoming, and continues:
In view of the effectiveness of this type of poetic pressure—the extraction of
money by virtual blackmail—it is small wonder that attempts have been made
in some Hausa kingdoms recently to forbid or limit the activities of these
singers.
8 Bjarkamál is a well known example.
9 Examples can be found for instance in Heimskringla I 1941:183, Heims-
kringla II 1945:56, and Heimskringla III 1951:26-31.