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186 THE IMPACT OF GRAZING ON MOUNTAIN VEGETATION AND THE ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL SYMBIONT Acknowledgements This study has been made possible with kindness from several institutions and grant providers. Faroese Natu- ral History Museum, Faroese Research Council, Faroese Agricultural Fund and Nordic Council of Ministers all have contributed fmancially, technically and otherwise provided resources. The mycorrhizal part of this study is part of a PhD-project at thc Uni- versity of York, supervised by Alastair Fitter. References Adler, P.B., Raff, D.A. and Lauenroth, W.K. 2001. The ef- fect of grazing on the spatial heterogeneity of vegeta- tion. Oecologia 128: 465-479. Alonso, I„ Hartley, S.E. and Thurlow, M. 2001. Competi- tion between heather and grasses on Scottish moor- lands; interacting effects of nutrient enrichment and grazing regime. Journal of Vegetation Science 12: 249- 260. Austrheim, G. and Eriksson, O. 2001. Plant species diver- sity and grazing in the Scandinavian mountains - pat- tern and processes at different spatial scales. Ecogra- phy 24: 683-695. Bentivenga, S.P. and Hetrick, B.A.D. 1992. The effect of prairie management practices on mycorrhizal symbio- sis. Mycologia 84: 522-527. Bethlenfalvay, G.J. and Dakessian, S. 1984. Grazing ef- fects on mycorrhizal colonization and floristic compo- sition of the vegetation on a semiaric range in northem Nevada. Journal of Range Management 37:312-316. Bethlenfalvay, G.J., Evans, R.A. and Lesperancc, A.L. 1985. Mycorrhizal colonization of crested wheatgrass as influenced by grazing. Agronomy Journal 77: 233- 236. Crawley, M.J. 1990. Rabbit grazing, plant competition and seedling recruitment in acid grassland. Journal of Ap- plied Ecology 27: 803-820. Daft, M.J. and EI-Giahmi, A.A. 1978. Effect of arbuscular mycorrhiza on plant growth. VIII. Effects of defolia- tion and Iight on selectcd hosts. New Phytologist 80: 365-372. Dupre, C. and Diekmann, M. 2001. Difference in species richness and life-history traits between grazed and abandoned grasslands in southem Sweden. Ecography 24: 275-286. Eom, A.-H., Wilson, G.W.T. and Hartnett, D.C. 2001. Ef- fects of ungulate grazers on arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and fungal community stmcture in tallgrass prairie. Mycologia 93: 233-242. Fosaa, A. M. 2004. Altitudina! distribution of plant com- munities in the Faroe Islands. Fróðskaparrit 51: 200- 211. Gehring, C.A. and Whitham, T.G. 1994. Interactions be- tween aboveground herbivores and the mycorrhizal mutualists of plants. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9: 251-255. Gehring, C.A., Wolf, J.E. and Theimer, T.C. 2002. Terres- trial vertebrates promote arbuscular mycorrhizal fun- gal diversity and inoculum potential in a rain forest soil. Ecology Letters 5: 540-548. Grace, C. and Stribley, D.P. 1991. A safer procedure for routine staining of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Mycological Research 95: 1160-1162. Hartley, S.E. and Amos, L. 1999. Competitive interactions between Nardus stricta L. and Calluna vulgaris (L) Hull: the effect of fertilizer and defoliation on above- and below-ground performance. Journal of Ecology 87: 330-340. Hartley, S.E. and Mitchell, R.J. 2005. Manipulation of nu- trient and grazing levels on heather moorlands: changes in Calluna dominance and consequences for community composition. Journal ofEcology 93: 990- 1004. Hokka, V., Mikola, J., Vestberg, M. and Setala, H. 2004. In- teractive effects of defoliation and an AM fungus on plants and soil organisms in experimental legume- grass communities. Oikos 106: 73-84. Huisman, J., Grover, J.P., van der Wal, R. and van Andel, J. 1999. Competition for light, plant species replace- ment, and herbivore abundance along productivity gradients. In: Olff, H„ Brown, V.K. and Drent, R.H. (eds). Between plants and predators. Blackwell-Sci- ence, Oxford: 239-269. Hulme, P.D., Pakeman, R.J., Torvell, L„ Fisher, J.M. and Gordon, I.J. 1999. The effects of controlled sheep grazing on the dynamics of upland Agrostis-Festuca grassland. Journal of Applied Ecology 36: 866-900. Komer, C. 1999. Alpine Plant Life. Functional plant ecol- ogy of high mountain ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany. Koske, R.E. and Gemma J.N. 1989. A modified procedure for staining roots to detect VA mycorrhizas. Mycologi- cal Researclt 92: 486-505. Kula, A.A.R., Hartnett, D.C. and Wilson, G.W.T. 2005. Ef- fects of mycorrhizal symbiosis on tallgrass prairie plant-herbivore interactions. Ecology Letters 8: 61-69. Lugo, M.A., Maza, M.E.G. and Cabello, M.N. 2003. Ar- buscular mycorrhizal fungi in a mountain grassland II: Seasonal variation of colonization studied, along with its relation to grazing and metabolic liost type. My- cologia 95: 407-415. Magnússon, B. and Magnússon, S.H. 1990. Studies in the grazing of a drained lowland fen in Iceland. I. The re- sponses of the vegetation to livestock grazing. Bú- vísindi 4: 87-108. McGonigle T.P., Miller, M.H., Evans, D.G., Fairchild, D.G.
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