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used as set phrases with no variations. These fixed expressions are
very common, particularly in spoken language, and our mind
processes them as a single item. “Speakers do not construct these
items, but simply recall them, direct from memory, as learned
wholes.”5 Corpus linguistics6 has fostered recognition of these lex-
ical chunks, thanks to computerized storage of texts that helps
identify strong collocates used as single units of meaning.7
Another relevant definition is that of word family which
includes all the variations of a word due to morphology and gram-
mar, inflections, and its derivatives which are formed by adding
affixes. A learner can easily recognize the meaning of sognano, ha
sognato or sognatore if he has been trained to learn the patterning of
grammar and affix meanings.
When considering how many words L28 students should learn,
the so-called fundamental vocabulary is necessary in order to
understand general language and take part in daily conversations.
According to Tullio De Mauro, the average Italian educated person
masters 60 to 80 thousand words in the native language, but just
2,000 lexemes make up the fundamental vocabulary, which accounts
for 90–95% of communication needs.9 The figure is not far from the
standard set by the old “Threshold level”, correspond ing to the B1
level of the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages. As a learner becomes more proficient and wants to read
authentic texts, a vocabulary twice as large is necessary. However, in
order to understand a particular subject area, as for special purpose
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5 Michael Lewis, Implementing the Lexical Approach, Hove: Language Teaching Publications, 1997,
p. 22.
6 Corpus linguistics is an approach to study aspects of language by means of research into lan-
guage corpora, i.e. huge collections of texts stored in a computerized database, labeled and
made accessible for queries.
7 “The larger units escape the attention of even experienced and well-trained lexicographers.
Before the advent of corpora and of corpus linguistics, we did not even have a methodology to
detect them. Neither standard linguistics nor Chomskyan linguistics can identify these units
of meaning.” Wolfgang Teubert and Anna Cermáková, Corpus Linguistics. A Short Introduction,
London: Continuum, 2007, p. 21. Here a full account on friendly fire as a single lexical unit is
given, with a detailed investigation of its usage.
8 L2 indicates both a second and foreign language in this instance.
9 Tullio De Mauro, Linguistica elementare, Bari: Laterza, 9th edition, 2008, pp. 60–62. For an
account on research about vocabulary size related to English, see Norbert Schmitt, Vocabulary
in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 142–145.
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