Jökull


Jökull - 01.01.2016, Side 28

Jökull - 01.01.2016, Side 28
Jonathan L. Carrivick et al. through the analysis of surface velocity and geometry changes (e.g. Quincey et al., 2011, 2015; Sevestre et al., 2015) and improved understanding of surges may shed light on velocity variations of the large ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica where large variations of ice flow velocity have attracted increasing attention in recent years (Rignot and Kanagaratnam, 2006; Rignot et al., 2011). Identification of glacier surges tends to focus on rapid terminus position advances (e.g. Meier and Post, 1969; Hewitt, 1998; Björnsson et al., 2003) and on surface morphology that is indicative of a surge such as looped medial moraines, looped de- bris bands, contorted longitudinal foliation, and in- tense and chaotic crevassing (e.g. Barrand and Mur- ray, 2006; Hewitt, 2007; Copland et al., 2011; King et al., 2015; Paul, 2015; Ingólfsson et al., 2016). Characterisation of glacier surges and interpretation of surge mechanisms usually comes from analyses of surface velocity where dramatic speed-ups and slow- downs and zones of high velocity propagating both up-glacier and down-glacier have been quantified (e.g. Raymond and Malone, 1986; Kamb and Engelhardt, 1986; Pritchard et al., 2003; Fischer et al., 2003; Kotlyakov et al., 2008; Quincey et al., 2011; 2015; Copland et al., 2009; Heid and Kääb, 2012; Burgess et al., 2012; Rankl et al., 2014; Dunse et al., 2015). In contrast, measurements of surface elevation changes during glacier surges have been more lim- ited, which is primarily due to poor data availabil- ity. This is unfortunate because the surface elevation evolution of surging glaciers is important for under- standing surge mechanisms (Meier and Post, 1969; Sund et al., 2009). To date, measurements of 3D geometry changes of surges have either been (i) re- stricted to a few along-track profiles from altimetry data (e.g. Muskett et al., 2009; Burgess et al., 2012; Herzfeld et al., 2013), which has good vertical accu- racy (typically ∼1 m) or (ii) of medium (>10 m but usually 25 m or 30 m) spatial resolution (e.g. Mus- kett et al., 2008, Shugar et al., 2010; Kristensen and Benn, 2012; Gardelle et al., 2013; Rankl et al., 2014; Pitte et al., 2016) and consequently with poorer verti- cal accuracy (typically ∼10 m). Thus, these medium spatial resolution analyses have focussed on longitu- dinal changes in glacier elevation profiles with some notable exceptions from studies in Iceland where spatially-distributed elevation changes have been re- ported including the country-wide studies of Björns- son et al. (2003), on the northern margin of Vatna- jökull at Dyngjujökull, Aðalgeirsdóttir et al. (2005), around Vatnajökull by Magnússon et al. (2005), and at Drangajökull by Magnússon et al. (2016) and Brynj- ólfsson et al. (2016). Globally, measurements of 3D geometry changes of surging glaciers have been focussed on tidewater glaciers rather than on land- terminating glaciers. Studies that have obtained high-resolution sur- face elevation measurements of surging glaciers have done so typically with ∼10 m grid cell size photogrametrically-derived digital elevation models (DEMs) (e.g. Murray et al., 2012; King et al., 2015) or else with ∼2 m resolution Airborne Laser Scan- ning (ALS) data but only for a single time frame only (e.g. Murray et al., 2012). These studies have demonstrated the utility of these high-resolution data for (i) quantifying spatially-distributed (longitudinal and lateral) variability in ice surface elevation, struc- ture and morphology during surges, (ii) computing volume and mass displacements, and (iii) thereby as- sessing hypotheses of surge mechanisms. The works of Pitte et al. (2016) and Brynjólfsson et al. (2016) are notable because they are the only studies to date that have explicitly quantified and fully analysed the 3D geometry changes of a surging land-terminating glacier (Table 1). In contrast, Sund et al. (2009) ex- amined elevation changes of many surging glaciers in Svalbard, 72% of which were land-terminating. They identified up to +40 m elevation changes due to the surges and, having examined multiple glaciers, iden- tified three stages in the surge development. In Alaska, 8% of the land-terminating glaciers studied by Arendt et al. (2002) for their elevation changes were identified as surging, but the eleva- tion values for individual glaciers were not reported (Table 1). In the Karakorum, there are 101 docu- mented surge-type glaciers (Rankl et al., 2014), which constitute ∼13% of all Karakorum glaciers (Barrand and Murray, 2006). Only Gardelle et al. (2013) have quantified elevation changes of those land-terminating 28 JÖKULL No. 66, 2016
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