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More efficiency with regards to language learning is also associ-
ated with higher levels in the receiving country’s language. A higher
level of education is strongly linked to higher proficiency in the local
language (Asfar et al. 2019; Chiswick and Miller 2001; Kristen et al.
2015; Van Tubergen and Wierenga 2011). Further, a younger age at
migration is associated with higher language proficiency (Asfar et al.
2019; Chiswick and Miller 2001; Kristen et al. 2015; Van Tubergen
and Wierenga 2011). The linguistic distance, the degree to which two
languages are similar or different, between the native language of an
immigrant and the native language of the receiving society can also
predict the likelihood of an immigrant learning the language of the
receiving society: Immigrants whose native language is similar to the
language of the receiving country tend to be more proficient in the
local language (Chiswick & Miller 2004).
Another category of factors associated with immigrants’ profi-
ciency in the language of the receiving society are economic factors
such as their employment status, their income level, and their in-
tended length of stay in the receiving society. Chiswick and Miller
(2001, 395) find that those with more wealth tend to be more profi-
cient in the language of the receiving country. However, in light of
increasingly transnational and global labor markets, there is also a
considerable group of wealthy migrants that does not intend to learn
the local language, for example because they only intend to stay tem-
porarily in the receiving country. Intended duration of stay is, thus,
another factor associated with immigrants’ proficiency in the langu-
age of the receiving society: Those who intend to stay longer or settle
permanently in the receiving society are more likely to acquire the
language of the receiving society (Chiswick and Miller 2001, 394).
The gender factor does not fall directly into the category’s expo-
sure, efficiency, and economic incentives discussed in this section.
Gender is, however, a noteworthy factor to discuss in this article be-
cause the link between immigrants’ gender and language proficiency
reveals contradictory results. Several studies indicate that female
gender is positively correlated with language proficiency (Kristen et
al., 2015), while other publications report that male gender is posi-
tively correlated with language proficiency (Morrice et al. 2019).
Furthermore, some studies suggest that gender has no relevant effect
LARA W. HOFFMANN, YVONNE HÖLLER, MARKUS MECKL