Helga Law Journal - 01.01.2021, Page 58

Helga Law Journal - 01.01.2021, Page 58
Helga Law Journal Vol. 1, 2021 60 Dr. Snjólaug Árnadóttir 61 baselines rely on. If basepoints are on elevated peaks they may withstand coastal erosion and sea level rise, effectively making coastlines more heavily indented but without shifting the location of straight baselines or closing lines. UNCLOS does not explicitly state that baselines and derived outer limits must fluctuate in accordance with changing coastlines. Most commentators adhere to the theory of ambulatory baselines and this is clearly reflected in the work of the ILA Baselines Committee and the ILA Committee on International Law and Sea Level Rise.49 However, Purcell argues that baselines do not necessarily fluctuate with changing coastlines because the rules regarding the extent of baselines are separate from the entitlement to a lawfully established claim.50 She seems to view the rules on maritime limits as constitutive and not requiring ongoing adherence. The theory of ambulatory baselines has been derived from two exceptions, which are enshrined in UNCLOS articles 7(2) and 76(9). The theory provides that ‘baselines and boundaries generated from them are “ambulatory” […] that is, the baselines – and therefore the boundaries – adjust themselves to a changing coastline’.51 UNCLOS article 7(2) provides that straight baselines at highly unstable deltaic coastlines remain effective ‘notwithstanding subsequent regression of the low-water line […] until changed by the coastal State in accordance with this Convention’. UNCLOS article 76(8) allows States to establish ‘final and binding’ outer limits to the continental shelf beyond 200 nm and these are permanently described in accordance with UNCLOS article 76(9). This stability is only afforded to straight baselines and outer continental shelf limits in very specific circumstances and it is contingent on different procedural requirements. Therefore, the general rule is that all limits fluctuate in accordance with changing coastal geography. Straight baselines, and derived outer limits, can remain enforceable as coastlines change but only if the instability is a result of a delta and other natural conditions or if the limits conform to information submitted to the UNSG, as per UNCLOS article 16. Similarly, continental shelf limits can remain stable but only if established on the basis of recommendations of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) and if the limits have been permanently described before the UNSG.52 Many States fail to submit relevant data to the UNSG. Some States adopt legislation concerning their limits but according to the UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (DOALOS), such acts do not suffice to satisfy obligations arising under UNCLOS articles 16(2), 47(9), 75(2), 76(9) and 84(2): ‘The mere existence or adoption of national legislation or the registration of a maritime boundary delimitation treaty […] even if these instruments contain charts and/or lists, cannot be interpreted as an act of deposit with the [UNSG] under the 49 ILA Baselines Committee ‘Conference Report Sofia 2012’ (ILA 2012) 31; ILA Committee on International Law and Sea Level Rise ‘Sydney Conference’ (ILA 2018) 11-12. 50 Kate Purcell, Geographical Change and the Law of the Sea (Oxford University Press 2019) 12-13. 51 David D Caron, (n 22) 2. 52 See UNCLOS articles 76(8) and (9). ‘any appreciable extent’.41 States must take positive action to activate the right to employ straight or archipelagic baselines and these baselines must be clearly defined by relevant coastal States. Outer maritime limits to maritime zones are generally at a fixed distance from baselines and can, consequently, be identified by reference to baselines. However, the outer limits of the continental shelf can be determined by reference to the natural prolongation of the continental margin where it extends beyond 200 nm.42 UNCLOS article 16 provides that straight baselines, closing lines around bays and rivers, and the outer limits derived therefrom ‘shall be shown on charts of a scale or scales adequate for ascertaining their position. Alternatively, a list of geographical coordinates of points, specifying the geodetic datum, may be substituted’. Moreover, coastal States must duly publicise their charts or lists of geographical coordinates and deposit copies with the UN Secretary-General (UNSG).43 The same applies to archipelagic baselines,44 and articles 75 and 84 further confirm that these obligations extend to the outer limits of the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf. The impacts of climate change on maritime entitlements are most severe when they change the status of coastal features. A low-tide elevation may only be used to form the baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea if it is within 12 nm from the mainland or an island.45 Furthermore, islands that become uninhabitable or incapable of sustaining economic life because of inundation will no longer generate an exclusive economic zone or a continental shelf, i.e. if they are reduced to rocks as per UNCLOS article 121(3), and if a rock is completely submerged it also loses all entitlements to a territorial sea.46 Similarly, States can lose the capacity to qualify as archipelagic States and, consequently, the right to rely on straight archipelagic baselines.47 The gradient of the coast can be an important factor for evaluating the consequences of coastal changes for maritime entitlements. ‘[W]here the coastline is gently shelving, even relatively slight changes in sea level vertically can result in significant shifts in the location of the low-water line horizontally and this, in turn, can have significant impacts on the spatial extent of national maritime claims.’48 Straight baselines, archipelagic baselines and closing lines do not have the same direct correlation to the low-water line as normal baselines; the mean low-water line can undergo substantial changes without affecting the furthest seaward extensions, which the basepoints for closing lines, archipelagic and straight 41 UNCLOS articles 7 and 47. 42 See section II.B. and UNCLOS article 76. 43 UNCLOS article 16. 44 See UNCLOS articles 47(8) and (9). 45 UNCLOS article 13. 46 Alfred H A Soons (n 27) 216-217. 47 See UNCLOS article 47. 48 Clive Schofield and Robin Warner, Climate change and the oceans gauging the legal and policy currents in the Asia Pacific and beyond (Edward Elgar Pub 2012) 136.
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